General exposition

1 I reverently present the Transformed Buddhas and Lands: the Buddhas are like the one taught in the Contemplation Sutra, that is, the Buddha described in the Contemplation of the True Buddha-body. The Lands are the various forms of the Pure Land specified in the Contemplation Sutra and also the land presented in the Sutra on the Bodhisattvas' Dwelling in the Womb, that is, the Realm of Sloth and Pride. They are also described in the Larger Sutra as the Castle of Doubt and the Womb-Palace.

The 19th Vow Teaching

2 Here we find that even if the multitudes of this defiled world, the depraved and evil sentient beings, have departed from the ninety-five wrong paths and entered the Dharma-gates, such as the imperfect and perfect, provisional and true, it is extremely difficult to find true followers and rare indeed to meet real ones; false practicers are very many and nominal ones are innumerable. Thereupon, Shakyamuni Buddha guides the multitudes of beings by disclosing the store of merit, and Amida Tathagata made the Vow, through which he saves sentient beings.

We already have the compassionate Vow, which is called 'the Vow of performing meritorious acts,' 'the Vow of Amida's appearance at one's death-bed,' 'the Vow of Amida's appearance at one's death to guide one to birth in the Pure Land,' and 'the Vow of Amida's coming to receive the aspirant'; it can also be called 'the Vow of Sincere Mind and Aspiration.'

The 19th Vow - the Larger Sutra

3 Here the [Nineteenth] Vow says in the Larger Sutra:

If, when I attain Buddhahood, sentient beings in the lands of the ten quarters, who awaken Bodhi-mind, perform various meritorious deeds and sincerely make aspiration, desiring to be born in my land, should not, at their death, see me appear before them surrounded by a multitude of sages, may I not attain perfect Enlightenment.

Testimony from the Sutra of Lotus of Compassion

4 It is stated in the Sutra of Lotus of Compassion, "Chapter on Great Charity" [actually, "Chapter on Giving Prediction to Bodhisattvas]:

When I have realized the highest, perfect Bodhi, those sentient beings in the immeasurable, uncountable and innumerable Buddha-lands who awaken aspiration for the highest, perfect Bodhi and cultivate [627a] roots of good, desiring to be born in my land, will see me appear before them at their death surrounded by a host of sages. Seeing me, they will, in my presence, attain joy in their hearts. By virtue of the merit of seeing me, they will be freed of all hindrances and, after death, will be born in my land.

Fulfillment of the 19th Vow

5 The statement concerning fulfillment of this [Nineteenth] Vow is found in the passage on the three grades of aspirants [in the Larger Sutra] and the passages from the Contemplation Sutra on the meditative good and the non-meditative good in nine levels of aspirants.

Fulfillment of the 19th Vow: the Bodhi-tree, etc.

6The Larger Sutra [fasc. 1] states:

Again, the Bodhi-tree of the Buddha of Infinite Life is four million li in height and five thousand yojanas in circumference at its base. Its branches spread two hundred thousand li in each of the four directions. It is a natural cluster of all kinds of precious stones and is adorned with the kings of jewels, namely, moonlight mani gems and ocean-supporting-wheel gems....

Ananda, when humans and devas of that land see the Bodhi-tree, they will attain three insights into dharmas: first, insight into reality through hearing the sacred sounds; second, insight into reality by being in accord with it; and third, the insight into the non-arising of all dharmas. They attain these insights through the majestic power of the Buddha of Infinite Life, the power of his Primal Vow, his perfectly fulfilled Vow, his clear and manifest Vow, his firm Vow and his accomplished Vow....

Again, the halls, monasteries, palaces and pavilions are spontaneous apparitions, all adorned with the seven jewels and hung with curtains of various other jewels, such as pearls and moon-bright mani gems.

Inside and out, to right and left, are bathing pools. Some of them are ten yojanas, others, twenty, thirty, and so on, until we come to those measuring a hundred thousand yojanas in length, breadth, and depth. They are brimful of the water of eight excellent qualities, clear, fragrant and tasting like nectar.

Fulfillment of the 19th Vow: the embryonic birth

7 It is also stated in the same sutra [fasc. 2]:

Those in the embryonic state dwell in palaces as high as a hundred yojanas or five hundred yojanas, where they enjoy pleasures as do those in the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods.

Then the Bodhisattva Maitreya said to the Buddha, "World-Honored One, for what reason are some of the inhabitants of that land in the embryonic state and the others born by transformation?"

The Buddha replied, "Maitreya, if there are sentient beings who perform various meritorious deeds aspiring for birth in that land while still entertaining doubt, such beings are unable to comprehend the Buddha-wisdom, inconceivable wisdom, ineffable wisdom, boundless Mahayana wisdom, and incomparable, unequaled, and unsurpassed supreme wisdom. Although they doubt these wisdoms, they still believe in retribution for evil and reward for virtue and so cultivate a stock of merits, aspiring for birth in that land. Such beings are born in a palace, where they dwell for five hundred years without being able to behold the Buddha, hear his exposition of the Dharma, or see the hosts of bodhisattvas and shravakas. For this reason, that type of birth in the Pure Land is called the 'embryonic state'.... Maitreya, you should know that those born by transformation are possessed of supreme wisdom, [627b] while those in the embryonic state lack that wisdom...."

The Buddha said to Maitreya, "Let us suppose that a wheel-turning monarch has a special chamber which is adorned with seven jewels and provided with curtained couches and silken banners hanging from the ceiling. If princes have committed an offense against the king, they are taken to that chamber and fettered with gold chains...."

The Buddha said to Maitreya, "Those beings are like that. Because of their doubt in the Buddha's wisdom, they have been born in palaces.... If those beings become aware of the faults committed in their former lives and deeply repent, they can, as they wish, leave there.... Maitreya, you should know that the bodhisattvas who allow doubt to arise lose great benefits."

Testimony from the T'ang version of the Larger Sutra

8 It is stated in the Teaching Assembly of the Tathagata of Infinite Life [fasc. 2]:

The Buddha said to Maitreya, "Suppose there are sentient beings who, while harboring doubt, accumulate roots of good and seek to realize the Buddha-wisdom, the all-pervasive wisdom, the inconceivable wisdom, the unequaled wisdom, the majestic wisdom, and the vast and extensive wisdom. They are unable to establish faith in their roots of good. For this reason, they dwell within the palace for five hundred years.... Ajita, as you observe those of excellent wisdom, you will see them born transformed in lotus flowers through the power of vast wisdom and sitting with their legs crossed. When you observe the inferior aspirants..., you will find that they cannot practice various meritorious acts. Hence, they will not be able to serve the Buddha of Infinite Life. These people have become so because of the faults of doubt in the past....

The Buddha said to Maitreya, "So it is, so it is. They plant roots of good, while harboring doubt, and seek to realize various wisdoms, from the Buddha-wisdom to the vast and extensive wisdom. They are unable to establish faith in their own roots of good. Since they have awakened faith through hearing the Buddha's Name, even though born in his land, they will be enclosed in the lotus-buds and will not emerge from there. These beings dwell in the lotus-matrix, feeling as if they were in a garden or palace."

Further testimony from the Larger Sutra

9 The Larger Sutra [fasc. 2] states:

Bodhisattvas of lesser practices and those who have performed small acts of merit, whose number is beyond calculation, will all be born there.

Further testimony from the T'ang version of the Larger Sutra

10 It is also stated [in theTeaching Assembly of the Tathagata of Infinite Life [fasc. 2] :

How much more incalculable are other bodhisattvas who are born there with small roots of good!

Further testimony from Shan-tao's work

11 The Master of Kuang-ming temple says in his Commentary [on the Meditative Practice]:

Some of them are enclosed within the lotus-buds, unable to emerge from there; some are born in the borderland, and others fall into the womb-palace.

Further testimony from Kyeong-heung's work

12 Master Kyeong-heung says [in the Hymns of the Nembutsu Liturgy]:

Because of doubting the Buddha-wisdom, although they are born in that land, they stay in the borderland and are not benefited by the Buddha's guidance. If you receive birth in the embryonic state, you must, by all means, reject it.

Further testimony from Genshin's work

13 In the Collection of Essential Passages Concerning Birth [fasc. 3] by the Master of Shuryogon-in [Genshin], the following passage is quoted from Master Huai-kan's Discourse [Clearing Doubts about the Pure Land Teaching]:

Question: The Sutra on Bodhisattvas' Dwelling in the Womb, [627c] fasc. 2, says,

In the western quarter, twelve kotis of nayutas from this Jambudvipa, is the Realm of Sloth and Pride.... Sentient beings who have awakened aspiration for birth in the land of Amida Buddha are all deeply attached to this realm, and so are unable to advance to the land of Amida Buddha. Only rarely, one out of kotis of millions of people can attain birth in the land of Amida Buddha.

A question arises regarding the statement of this sutra: Is there any possibility of attaining birth there?

Answer: In the Discourse Clearing Doubts about the Pure Land Teaching, Huai-kan quotes again the passage of Master Shan-tao, which has been quoted before, to answer this question, and he further adds:

The sutra says below, "For what reason? Because they are indolent and complacent and so their resolution is not firm." Hence, we know that those who engage in sundry practices are people of weak resolution. For this reason, they are born in the Realm of Sloth and Pride. If you solely perform this act [Nembutsu], without engaging in sundry practices, your resolution is firm, and so you will definitely be born in the Land of Utmost Bliss.... Again, those who are born in the Pure Land of Recompense are very few, and those who are born in the Transformed Pure Land are not few. Thus the different exposition in this sutra does not diverge from the teaching of the [Three] Sutras.

Shinran's recommendation of the Nembutsu

14 Thereupon, when I contemplate the exposition of the Master of Shuryogon-in, I find that in "Chapter on Verification of the Nembutsu" he clarifies the Eighteenth Vow as the special Vow of all special Vows. He urges those who engage in meditative and non-meditative practices as taught in the Contemplation Sutra to realize that they are people of extremely heavy evil karma and simply to recite Amida's Name. Monks and laypeople of this defiled world should reflect on their own capacities. This one should know.

Implicit and explicit teachings of the Three Sutras

Comparison between the Larger Sutra and the Contemplation Sutra with respect to the Three Minds

15 Question: Are the Three Minds in the Larger Sutra and those in the Contemplation Sutra the same or different?

Answer: When I carefully read the Sutra on the Contemplation of the Buddha of Infinite Life according to the intent of the commentator (Shan-tao), I find that there is an explicit meaning and an implicit, hidden and concealed meaning.

In its 'explicit' aspect, [the sutra] presents the meditative and non-meditative good acts and sets forth the three levels of aspirants and the Three Minds. The two kinds of good acts and the three meritorious acts, however, are not the true cause for birth in the Recompensed Land. The Three Minds held by various types of aspirants are based on their self-power and are individually different, and so they are not the same as the One Mind of the Other-Power. [The good acts] are the provisional means which the Tathagata especially provided and the roots of good with which one adoringly aspires for the Pure Land. This is the sutra's message - its explicit meaning.

In its 'implicit' aspect, [the sutra] discloses the Tathagata's universal Vow and reveals the One Mind of the Other-Power which ensures birth for all beings. Through the outrageous acts of Devadatta and Ajatashatru, Shakyamuni disclosed, with a smile, his original intention. Through Vaidehi's selection of [Amida's land] in particular, Amida's Primal Vow of Great Compassion was revealed. This is the implicit meaning of the sutra.

Hereupon, when the [Contemplation] Sutra says, "I entreat you to teach me how to visualize a land of pure karmic perfection," the 'land of pure karmic perfection' is the Land of Recompense established by the Primal Vow. 'Teach me how to contemplate' is the provisional means; 'teach me how to attain samadhi' refers to the Diamond-hard True Faith. When the sutra says, "Fix your thoughts upon and visualize the Person of pure karmic perfection in that Buddha-land," it teaches us to contemplate the Tathagata of Unhindered Light Shining throughout the Ten Quarters that has come into existence through the Primal Vow. 'I shall describe it in detail with various illustrations' refers to the thirteen contemplations. [628a] 'You are an ordinary person, and so your spiritual powers are weak and obscured' shows that [Vaidehi] is one of the evil persons suited for the teaching of birth in the Pure Land. 'The Buddhas, Tathagatas, have special ways [to enable you to see afar]' shows that various meditative and non-meditative good acts are provisional teachings. 'Through the Buddha's power, even I have now been able to see the land' implies the Other-Power. 'After the Buddha's passing, sentient beings...' shows that sentient beings of the future are precisely the beings to be led to birth in the Pure Land. 'If [your perception] agrees [with the sutra], it is called the attainment of the general perception [of the Land of Utmost Bliss]' indicates that the meditative practice is difficult to accomplish. 'While in this life, you will attain the Nembutsu-Samadhi' shows that the benefit of accomplishing the meditative practice is the attainment of the Nembutsu-Samadhi. This indicates that the meditation course is a provisional teaching. 'Those who awaken the Three Minds will certainly be born there' and 'there are three kinds of sentient beings who also attain birth' show that three kinds of Three Minds and two kinds of birth are distinguished for the three levels of aspirants.

I truly know that this [Contemplation] Sutra has both the explicit and the implicit, hidden and concealed meanings.

I will now discuss the sameness of and differences between the Three Minds of the two sutras; this matter requires careful consideration. The message of the Larger Sutra and that of the Contemplation Sutra are different in their explicit meaning, but the same in their implicit meaning. This we should know.

Shan-tao's testimony- 1

16 Hereupon, the Master of Kuang-ming temple says [in the Essential Meaning of the Contemplation Sutra]:

The Lord Preacher of this Saha world, responding to [Vaidehi's] request, opened widely the Essential Gate to the Pure Land, and the Capable One of the Land of Peace and Bliss revealed the universal Vow that manifests his special intent. The Essential Gate refers to the two courses of meditative and non-meditative good acts. Meditative practice consists in stopping wandering thought and concentrating the mind; non-meditative practice lies in ceasing to do evil and performing good. Aspirants are taught to aspire for birth by transferring the merit of these two practices [to that end]. The Universal Vow is set forth in the Larger Sutra.

Shan-tao's testimony - 2

17 He also says [in the same work]:

The Contemplation Sutra has the Buddha-contemplation-Samadhi as its essence; it also has the Nembutsu-Samadhi as its essence. Its basic theme is to attain birth in the Pure Land by single-mindedly making aspiration for birth and transferring the merit of one's practice to it.

Question: Concerning whether its teaching is Mahayana or Hinayana, in which of the two Pitakas is this sutra included and in which of the two teachings is it contained?

Answer: The Contemplation Sutra is included in the Bodhisattva-Pitaka and contained in the Sudden Teaching.

Shan-tao's testimony - 3

18 He also says [in the Commentary on the Introductory Part]:

'As such [I have heard]' implies the teachings, i.e., meditative and non-meditative teachings. 'Such' is the word indicating something definitely. Those who perform practices definitely gain benefit. This shows that the Tathagata's words are unerring. Hence, 'as such.'

Further, 'as' means 'as sentient beings wish.' In accordance with their wishes, the Buddha saves them. The correspondence between the beings and the teaching is indicated by 'such.' Hence, 'as such.'

Further, 'as such' shows the way the Tathagata expounds the Dharma. He expounds the gradual teaching as such; he expounds the sudden teaching as such; he expounds forms as such; he expounds voidness [628b] as such; he expounds the teaching for humans as such; he expounds the teaching for devas as such; he expounds Hinayana as such; he expounds Mahayana as such; he expounds the nature of ordinary beings as such; he expounds the nature of sages as such; he expounds cause as such; he expounds result as such; he expounds pain as such; he expounds pleasure as such; he expounds things far as such; he expounds things near as such; he expounds sameness as such; he expounds difference as such; he expounds purity as such; he expounds defilement as such; he expounds all dharmas in millions of different ways. The Tathagata's insightful observation is clear and manifest. He performs practices in accord with his wishes, benefiting the beings in different ways. The results of his acts agree with the nature of the Dharma, and free of errors. This is described as 'such.' Hence, 'as such.'

Shan-tao's testimony - 4

19 He also says [in the Commentary on the Introductory Part]:

The passage from 'whoever wishes to be born in his land' to '[these three] are called the pure karma' urges people to practice the three meritorious acts. This shows that the capacities of all sentient beings are divided into two kinds: one is meditative and the other is non-meditative. If only the meditative practice were set forth, it would not be applicable to all beings. For this reason, the Tathagata, out of skillful means, provided the three meritorious acts to accommodate those who have distracted minds.

Shan-tao's testimony - 5

20 He also says [in the Commentary on the Non-meditative Practice]:

There are two kinds of true and sincere [acts]: one is true and sincere [acts] for self-benefit and the other is true and sincere [acts] for benefiting others. True and sincere [acts] for self-benefit is further distinguished into two; first is to stop one's own and others' evil acts and abandon this defiled world with the true and sincere mind and also seek to do as all bodhisattvas do to stop all evils, whether walking, standing, sitting and lying down. Second is to promote, with the true and sincere mind, good acts for oneself and others, whether ordinary people or sages. As for the verbal act to be performed with the true and sincere mind, one praises Amida Buddha and his two fruits of reward - beings and the land. Further, as the verbal act to be performed with the true and sincere mind, one speaks disapprovingly of the pain and evil of one's own and others' two kinds of recompense - beings and environment - such as the three worlds and the six states of existence. Again, one praises good acts performed by all sentient beings in their three modes of action. If their acts are not good, one should respectfully keep distance from them and not rejoice in such acts. Further, as the bodily act to be performed with the true and sincere mind, one worships and reveres with joined hands Amida Buddha and his two fruits of reward - beings and land - and makes offerings to them with the four kinds of gifts. Also, as the bodily act to be performed with the true and sincere, one loathes and shuns one's own and others' two kinds of recompense - beings and environment - such as the three worlds of samsara. Again, as the mental act to be performed with the true and sincere mind, one contemplates, observes and is mindful of Amida and his two fruits of reward - beings and land - feeling as if they were before one's eyes. Also, as the mental act to be performed with the true and sincere mind, one loathes and shuns one's own and others' two kinds of recompense - beings and environment - such as the three worlds of samsara....

Further, one deeply and decisively believes that Shakyamuni Buddha expounds in the Contemplation Sutra the three meritorious acts, nine grades of aspirants, and two kinds of good - meditative and non-meditative - and verifies and praises Amida Buddha's two fruits of reward - beings and land - in order to lead people to adore and aspire for the Pure Land....

Further, Deep Faith with deep mind is to establish one's belief resolutely on a firm basis, thereby practicing in accord with the teaching, [628c] removing doubt forever, and remaining steadfast and unmoved by all different understandings, different practices, other teachings, other views and biases....

Next, concerning establishing one's belief about practice, there are two kinds of practice: one is right practice and the other is sundry practices. The right practice is to engage solely in the practices as prescribed in the sutras that teach the way to birth in the Pure Land. What is this practice? It is to chant single-mindedly only the Contemplation Sutra, the Amida Sutra and the Sutra on the Buddha of Infinite Life. It is also to concentrate on, think of, observe and be mindful of the twofold glorious reward of the Pure Land. When one worships, one should single-mindedly worship Amida Buddha alone. When one recites a name, one should single-mindedly recite Amida's Name alone. When one praises and makes offerings, one should single-mindedly praise and make offerings [to Amida] alone. This is the right practice.

Further, the right practice is divided into two. One is to recite Amida's Name single-mindedly, whether walking, stopping, sitting or lying down, with uninterrupted, continuous thought and without regard to the length of practice. This is called the Act of Right Assurance, for it is in accord with the Buddha's Vow. If one engages in worship, chanting, and so forth, these are called Auxiliary Acts. Other forms of good than these two kinds of practice are all called sundry practices.

When one performs the Act of Right Assurance and Auxiliary Acts, one feels close to Amida and one's mindfulness continues without interruption; hence, they are called 'uninterrupted [practices].' If one engages in sundry practices, one's thought is constantly interrupted. Although birth can be attained through transference of merit [towards the Pure Land], they are all called 'alienated' practices.

For the above reasons, this mind is called Deep Mind.

The third is the Mind of Aspiring for Birth by Merit-transference. This mind is to aspire for birth in that land by rejoicing in the worldly and supraworldly roots of good cultivated with one's bodily, verbal and mental acts of the past and the present lives and the worldly and supraworldly roots of good cultivated with the bodily, verbal and mental acts of all ordinary beings and sages and transferring all the roots of good cultivated by oneself and others to the land with the mind of true deep faith. For this reason, this mind is called the Mind of Aspiring for Birth by Merit-transference.

Shan-tao's testimony - 6

21 He also says [in the Commentary on the Introductory Part]:

The meditative good is a means to contemplation [of Faith of the Other-Power].

Shan-tao's testimony - 7

22 He also says [in the Commentary on the Introductory Part]:

The non-meditative good is a means to practice [of the Nembutsu].

Shan-tao's testimony - 8

23 He also says [in the Commentary on the Non-meditative Practice]:

The essential [gate-way] to the Pure Land is difficult to encounter.

Shan-tao's testimony - 9

24 He also says [in the Hymns of Birth in the Pure Land]:

As stated in the Contemplation Sutra, if you, first of all, possess the Three Minds, you will certainly attain birth. What are the three? First, Sincere Mind: with the bodily act, one worships Amida Buddha; with the verbal act, one praises and extols the Buddha; with the mental act, one is mindful of the Buddha and contemplates him. Whenever one gives rise to any of the three acts, one unfailingly makes sure that true and sincere mind accompanies it; hence, 'Sincere Mind.' ... Third, the Mind of Aspiring for Birth by Merit-transference: one aspires for birth in the Pure Land by transferring to it all the roots of good one has performed. Hence, we call this the Mind of Aspiring for Birth by Merit-transference. By possessing these Three Minds, one can definitely attain birth. If any of the three is lacking, one cannot attain birth. The detailed explanation of this is given in the Contemplation Sutra; this one should know. [629a]

Bodhisattvas who have already freed themselves from birth-and-death seek to attain the fruit of Buddhahood by transferring to it all the merits of good acts they perform. This is self-benefit. [At the same time,] they teach and guide sentient beings through all future ages. This is the benefiting of others.

All sentient beings of the present age, being fettered by evil passions, are unable to become liberated from the pain of birth-and-death in the evil realms. But under favorable conditions, they perform practices and aspire to be born in the land of Amida Buddha by transferring quickly all the roots of good towards it. Once they have reached the land, they have no fear. The four kinds of practice mentioned before are naturally and effortlessly performed and both self-benefit and benefiting of others are necessarily accomplished. This one should know.

Shan-tao's testimony - 10

25 He also says [in the Hymns of Birth in the Pure Land]:

Of those who abandon the sole practice [of the Nembutsu] and seek to perform sundry acts, very rarely, one or two out of a hundred or, very rarely, three or five out of a thousand will attain birth. Why? For the following reasons: miscellaneous conditions confuse their minds and so they lose right mindfulness; they are not in accord with the Buddha's Primal Vow; they run counter to the Buddha's teaching; they do not follow the Buddha's words; their concentration does not continue; their mindfulness is interrupted; their transference of merit and making aspiration are not sincere and truthful; evil passions, such as greed, anger and wrong views, arise and disturb their concentration; and they lack the feeling of shame and repentance.

There are three grades of repentance: ...high, middle and low. The high grade of repentance is to shed blood from the hair pores of one's body and also shed blood from one's eyes. The middle grade of repentance is to shed hot sweat from the hair pores of one's whole body and also shed blood from one's eyes. The low grade of repentance is to feel feverish all over the body and also shed tears from one's eyes. These three grades of repentance are different from each other, but they can all be carried out by those who have long cultivated the roots of good in the stage leading to emancipation. If people in this life revere the Dharma, pay respect to preachers, practice without regard for their lives, and repent even small transgressions, then their repentance will penetrate to their bones and marrows. If repentance is performed in this way, their heavy hindrances, whether accumulated for a long or short time, will instantly perish. Unless done in this way, any assiduous practice that one may perform throughout the twelve periods of the day and night will not yield any benefit. Those who do not repent in the proper way should know this. Even though one is unable to shed tears and blood, one will get the same result as described above if one thoroughly attains the True Faith.

Shan-tao's testimony - 11

26 He also says [in the Method of Contemplation on Amida Buddha]:

It is not stated that [Amida's Light] illumines and encompasses practicers of sundry acts other than [the Nembutsu].

Shan-tao's testimony - 12

27 He also says [in the Hymns of the Nembutsu Liturgy]:

The Tathagata, appearing in the world of the five defilements,

Guides the multitudes of beings appropriately by skillful means.

At times, he teaches that one attains emancipation through much hearing;

At times, he teaches that one attains the three supernatural faculties through a little understanding.

He also teaches that a joint practice of meritorious acts and cultivation

of wisdom removes hindrances,

And that one should be mindful, practicing meditation and contemplation while sitting.

The various Dharma-gates all lead to emancipation.

Shan-tao's testimony - 13

28 He also says [in the Hymns on the Pratyutpanna Samadhi]:

Meritorious practices for tens of thousands of kalpas are indeed difficult to perform;

Even for a short time, a hundred thousand evil passions intervene.

If you seek to realize the insight into all dharmas in this Saha world,

Such a time will never come - even in kalpas, as numerous as the sands of the River Ganges, while transmigrating in the six realms.

Teaching-gates which vary according to the practicers are called the 'gradual teaching';

One must perform painful practices for tens of thousands of kalpas [629b] before realizing the non-arising of all dharmas.

Until the end of your life, you should exclusively recite the Nembutsu;

As soon as your life ends, the Buddha will come to welcome you.

Even in such a short time as taking a meal, [evil passions] intervene;

How then can you keep greed and anger from arising for tens of thousands of kalpas?

Greed and anger are the hindrances to the path leading to the reward of heavenly and human beings.

They cause one to dwell in the three evil realms or the four realms.

Shan-tao's testimony - 14

29 He also says [in the Hymns on the Pratyutpanna Samadhi]:

Enter the Treasure Land by transferring both the meditative and non-meditative good acts toward it.

These are indeed the Tathagata's special means of salvation.

Vaidehi was none other than a woman

At the stage of an ordinary person full of greed and anger.

T'an-luan's testimony

30 It is stated in the Commentary on Vasubandhu's Discourse on the Pure Land:

There are two kinds of merit. One is the merit which accrues from the activity of a defiled mind and is not in accordance with the Dharma-nature. Such merit arises from the various good acts of ordinary persons and heavenly beings. It also refers to the reward of human and heavenly states of existence. Both the cause and effect of such good acts are inverted and false; hence, they are called 'false merit.'

Tao-ch'o's testimony - 1

31 It is stated in the Collection of Passages Concerning Birth in the Land of Peace and Bliss:

The following passage is quoted from the "Section on Moon-Matrix" of the Great Assembly Sutra:

Out of billions of sentient beings who begin practices and cultivate the way in the age of the Decadent Dharma, not one will attain the end.

We are now in the age of the Decadent Dharma. In the evil world of the five defilements, the Dharma-gate to the Pure Land is the only way possible for us.

Tao-ch'o's testimony - 2

32 It is also stated in the same work:

Before the length of practice reaches ten thousand kalpas, one cannot escape from the burning house of samsara, because one's thought is inverted and one's practice is subject to regression. Whatever great effort one may make, the reward one acquires is deceptive.

Discussion on the three sutras

33 In the Larger Sutra the true and provisional Vows are established. In the Contemplation Sutra the true and provisional teachings are revealed. In the Smaller Sutra only the True Gate is presented and no provisional good acts are provided. Thus we realize that the true message of the three sutras is the Selected Primal Vow, which is their essence. The provisional teaching of the three sutras is the practice of various good acts, which is their essential message.

Hereupon, when I contemplate the provisional Vow [the Nineteenth Vow], I find that there are the true and temporary aspects; also there are practice and faith. This Vow is the Vow of Amida's appearance at one's death-bed. The practice refers to the good of various meritorious acts. The faith refers to Sincere Mind, Aspiration and Desire for Birth. Through the practice and faith of this Vow, the Essential Gate of the Pure Land way, i.e., its provisional and temporary teaching, is revealed.

From this Essential Gate three types of acts are disclosed: right, auxiliary and sundry. Within the right and auxiliary acts, exclusive and mixed practices are distinguished. Concerning the practicers, there are two kinds: practicers of meditation and those of non-meditation.

There are also two kinds of Three Minds and two kinds of birth. The two kinds of Three Minds are: meditative Three Minds and non-meditative Three Minds. The meditative and non-meditative Minds are minds of self-power which are different in each practicer. The two kinds of birth are: immediate birth and provisional birth. Provisional birth is birth in an embryonic state, and borderland; it is birth beneath the Twin Shala trees. Immediate birth refers to birth by sudden transformation into the Recompensed Land. [629c]

In this [Contemplation] Sutra there is the true aspect, which is disclosing of the Diamond-hard True Faith and Amida's embracing and never forsaking. Thus Shakyamuni, the Well-Gone, who guides beings of this defiled world, proclaimed the Vow of Sincere Mind and Joyful Faith, because the true cause for birth in the Recompensed Land is Joyful Faith. Hence, the Larger Sutra says "joyfully entrust themselves to me." Entrusting oneself to the Tathagata's Vow and having no doubt about it is called faith. The Contemplation Sutra describes this as Deep Mind - 'deep' because it is contrasted with shallow faiths of other practicers. The Smaller Sutra says 'singleness of heart' - 'single' because no two practices intermingle. Concerning singleness of heart, there are deep and shallow aspects. The deep aspect of it refers to the True Faith for benefiting others; the shallow aspect refers to the mind of self-benefit to perform meditative or non-meditative practice.

Propensities of ordinary people

34 Master [Shan-tao's] intent seems to be as follows: He says [in the Essential Meaning of the Contemplation Sutra], "The number of the gateways of the excellent practices provided for different capacities of people is eighty-four thousand and more. Gradual and sudden teachings are suited to their capacities. Those who follow favorable conditions all attain emancipation."

We note, however, that ordinary and ignorant people, who are ever sinking in the state of birth-and-death, find it hard to cultivate a meditative mind, because it requires cessation of thought and concentration of it. A non-meditative mind is also hard to cultivate, because it requires abolishing evil and practicing good. For this reason, visualizing forms and fixing the mind on them are hard to accomplish; hence, Shan-tao says [in the Commentary on the Meditative Practice] "Even if one dedicates a lifetime of a thousand years, the Dharma-eye will not be opened." How much more difficult it is for them to attain formlessness and no-thought! Therefore, he says, "The Tathagata knew beforehand that ordinary people of the latter age defiled by karmic evil would not be able to accomplish even the practice of visualizing forms and concentrating on them - to say nothing of seeking realization without visualizing forms. It would be like building a house in the air without magical means."

Concerning the sentence, 'gateways ... and more,' 'gateways' refers to the eighty-four thousand provisional teaching-gates, and 'more' refers to the ocean-like One-Vehicle teaching of the Primal Vow.

Comparison between the Path of Sages and the Pure Land Path

35 Of all the Buddha's life-time teachings, those that provide the means of entering sagehood and realization of Enlightenment in this world are called the Path of Sages, which is also described as the Path of Difficult Practice. Within this Path, there are such teachings as: Mahayana and Hinayana; gradual and sudden; One Vehicle, Two Vehicles and Three Vehicles; expedient and true; exoteric and esoteric; Vertical Going-out and Vertical Transcendence. These are self-power teachings, the expedient and provisional ways prescribed by [the bodhisattvas of] the stage of benefiting and teaching others.

Entering sagehood and realizing Enlightenment in the Pure Land of Peace and Provision is called the Pure Land Path, which is described as the Path of Easy Practice. Within this Path, there are such teachings as: Crosswise Going-out and Crosswise Transcendence; temporary and true; gradual and sudden; auxiliary and right acts and sundry acts; mixed and exclusive performances.

The Right Act refers to the five kinds of right acts. The Auxiliary Acts refer to the five kinds of acts except recitation of the Name. The Sundry Acts refer to all the various acts other than the Right and Auxiliary Acts; they are the temporary gates of self-power teachings, such as Crosswise Going-out, gradual teaching, meditative and non-meditative, the three kinds of meritorious conduct, and teachings for the three groups of practicers and the nine levels of aspirants.

Crosswise Transcendence is the way of removing the mind of self-power through mindfulness of the Primal Vow; this is called the Other-Power teaching for Crosswise Transcendence. This is the most exclusive of all the exclusive practices, the most distinguished of all the sudden teachings, the truest of all the true teachings, and the ultimate One-Vehicle teaching of all the One-Vehicle teachings. This is the True Essence [of the Pure Land way], which I have already clarified in "Chapter on True [630a] Practice."

Various forms of Pure Land practices

36 'Sundry practices' and 'mixed performances' contain the same character ['zo' mixed] but their meanings are different. The character 'zo' encompasses thousands of practices. As opposed to the five right acts, there are five sundry acts. The character 'zo' implies that understandings and practices of humans, devas and bodhisattvas are mixed up. They are not originally the cause for birth in the Pure Land, but the good acts which require turning over of the mind and transferring their merit; hence, they are called sundry practices of the Pure Land way. Concerning sundry practices, exclusive practice and exclusive thought are distinguished; also mixed practices and mixed thoughts are distinguished. Exclusive practice is to practice only one good act. Exclusive thought is the mind bent on transferring the merit of practice. Mixed practices with mixed thoughts are mixed practices of various good acts; hence, they are called sundry acts. Mixed thoughts are so called because meditative and non-meditative minds intermingle.

With regard to the right and auxiliary acts, exclusive performance and mixed performance are distinguished. Within mixed performances, there are exclusive mind and mixed minds. Exclusive performance is further distinguished into two: recitation of the Buddha's Name only and five exclusive performances. With regard to these performances, exclusive mind and mixed minds are distinguished. The five exclusive performances are: 1) exclusive worshiping, 2) exclusive chanting [of the Pure Land sutras], 3) exclusive contemplation [of Amida and the Pure Land], 4) exclusive recitation [of the Name] and 5) exclusive praising [of Amida]. These are called the five exclusive performances. Although the same word 'exclusive performance' is used, it implies different meanings, i.e., meditative exclusive performance and non-meditative exclusive performance.

Exclusive mind is the mind concentrated on performing the five right acts without other thoughts mingled with it; hence, called 'exclusive mind.' This includes both meditative exclusive mind and non-meditative exclusive mind.

Mixed performance is so called because both right and auxiliary acts are jointly practiced. Mixed minds are so called because meditative and non-meditative minds intermingle. This one should discern.

Speaking of all the various practices, Master Tao-ch'o says 'myriad practices,' Master Shan-tao says 'sundry practices,' and Master Huai-kan says 'various practices.' Master Genshin used the same term as Master Huai-kan's, and Master Genku followed Master Shan-tao. When I examine the Master [Shan-tao's] commentaries while based on the sutras' exposition, I find that there are within 'sundry practices' the following: sundry practice performed with mixed minds, sundry practice with exclusive mind, and exclusive practice with mixed minds; also within 'the right act' there are: exclusive performance with exclusive mind, exclusive performance with mixed minds, and mixed performances with mixed minds. These are all the karmic cause for birth in the borderland, womb-palace and the realm of sloth and pride. Therefore, even though one is born in the Land of Utmost Bliss, one is unable to see the Three Treasures, for the light of the Buddha's mind does not illumine and embrace practicers of other miscellaneous acts. How meaningful is the [Nineteenth] Vow for temporary guidance! The teaching of the temporary gate and [Shan-tao's] exposition that makes people aspire for the Pure Land have hereby become even clearer.

The two kinds of the Three Minds in the two sutras are different in their explicit meaning, but one and the same in their implicit meaning. I have thus answered the question concerning the sameness and differences of the two kinds of the Three Minds.

Comparison between the Three Minds of the two sutras and the One Mind of the Amida Sutra

37 Question: Are the Three Minds in the Larger Sutra, those in the Contemplation Sutra and the One Mind in the Smaller Sutra the same or different?

Answer: With regard to the Vow of the True Gate [the Twentieth Vow], which is provided as an expedient means, there is practice and faith; also [630b] there is the true and the provisional aspects.

This Vow is known as the Vow of planting roots of virtue. The practice is of two kinds: the roots of good and the roots of virtue. The faith refers to Sincere Mind, Mind to Transfer Merits and Desire for Birth.

The practicers are of two kinds: meditative and non-meditative. The birth [they attain] is the Incomprehensible Birth. The Buddha [who appears before them] is a Transformed Body. The Land [where they are born] is the Castle of Doubt and the Womb-Palace.

From the example of the Contemplation Sutra we can presume that this [Smaller] Sutra, too, has an explicit meaning and an implicit, hidden and concealed meaning. In its explicit meaning, the Preacher of the sutra abhors and despises the lesser good of all the various practices and sets forth the True Gate of roots of good and roots of virtue, thereby encouraging [the Nembutsu practice with] One Mind for self-benefit and urging us to seek the Incomprehensible Birth. Thus, the sutra says, "[Recitation of the Name is] the cause of the many roots of good, much virtue and many merits." A commentary [Hymns of the Nembutsu Liturgy] says, "The nine levels of aspirants should transfer their merits towards the Pure Land and attain the Stage of Non-retrogression." It also says:

Nothing surpasses birth in the Western Quarter through the Nembutsu;

The Buddha comes to welcome those who recite the Name even three or five times.

This shows the explicit meaning of the [Smaller] Sutra. This is the expedient means within the True Gate.

In its implicit meaning, the sutra brings forth the true message which is hard to receive in faith. It is meant to reveal the ocean-like inconceivable Vow and lead us to the ocean-like unhindered Great Faith. Since we are urged [to accept this teaching] by Buddhas countless as the sands of the River Ganges, our faith is the faith awakened by the encouragement of Buddhas countless as the sands of the River Ganges; hence, the sutra says, "extremely difficult [to accept in faith]." The commentary [Hymns of the Nembutsu Liturgy]says:

Amida's universal Vow has the strong power,

Enabling ordinary people who recite the Name to attain birth immediately.

This shows the implicit meaning. The [Smaller] Sutra says 'shuji (hold fast to [the Name])' and 'isshin (one mind).' 'Shu' means that the mind is steadfast and unmoving; 'ji' means that the mind is not distracted or lost. 'Ichi' means not dual; 'shin' means true and sincere.

This [Smaller] Sutra is a Mahayana sutra which the Buddha expounded of his own accord without awaiting questions. Thus, the reason for the Tathagata's appearance in the world, as evidenced by the witness and protection of Buddhas countless as the sands of the River Ganges, is solely to present this sutra. Thereupon, the Great Beings [Nagarjuna and Vasubandhu] who were among the four dependable sages and who promulgated the sutras, as well as the masters of the Pure Land way in the three countries, revealed the Nembutsu of the True Teaching and so guided the wrong-viewed and deceitful people of the defiled world.

Although in the three sutras there are the explicit meaning and the implicit, hidden and concealed meaning, their essential message is to disclose Faith as the cause of entry [into Enlightenment]. For this reason, each sutra begins with the remark, "Thus [have I heard]." This opening remark signifies deep faith. When I carefully read the three sutras, I find that the Diamond-hard True Faith is the most essential part. True Faith is Great Faith; Great Faith is rare, most excellent, truly wonderful, and pure. Why? Because the sea of Great Faith is extremely difficult to enter, the reason being that it arises through the Buddha's Power. Conversely, the True Land of Bliss is extremely easy to go to, because one can attain birth there through the Vow-Power.

I have discussed the sameness and differences of the One Mind [of the Smaller Sutra and the Three Minds of the other two sutras]. I hope I have clarified this problem.

I have thus answered the question about the One Mind in the three sutras.

The 20th Vow Teaching

Exposition of the Amida Sutra - the 20th Vow

38 [630c] Monks and laypeople of this defiled world should quickly enter the True Gate of complete practice of the utmost virtues and aspire for the Incomprehensible Birth. In the provisional teaching of the True Gate there are roots of good and roots of virtue, and also the meditative exclusive mind, non-meditative exclusive mind and meditative and non-meditative mixed mind.

'Mixed mind' means that all good and evil beings, whether of the Mahayana or Hinayana, ordinary people or sages, recite the Name with the thought of performing the right and auxiliary acts in a mixed way. Thus the teaching which is followed is that of sudden attainment but the practicers who follow it are fit for the teaching of gradual attainment. Although they perform the exclusive practice, their mind is mixed. Hence, they are called mixed mind.

'Meditative and non-meditative exclusive mind' is the mind that approaches the Primal Vow-Power with the belief in the reward for good acts and retribution for evil ones; this is called the exclusive mind of self-power.

'Root of good' refers to the Tathagata's auspicious Name. Since it fully contains thousands of good acts, it is the root of all good; hence, it is called the root of good. 'Root of virtue,' too, refers to the Tathagata's virtuous Name. When we recite this virtuous Name even once, it fills us with the utmost virtue and transforms all our karmic evil. Since it is the root of the virtuous names of the Buddhas of the three periods throughout the ten quarters, it is called the root of virtue.

Hereupon, Shakyamuni Buddha opened the store of virtue and guides beings of the defiled worlds of the ten quarters. Amida Tathagata made the Vow of accomplishing the ultimate salvation [the Twentieth Vow] to guide compassionately all the multitudinous beings. We already have the compassionate Vow, which is called 'the Vow of planting roots of virtue,' 'the Vow ensuring the birth of those who direct their thoughts [to the Pure Land],' and also 'the Vow of unfailing accomplishment of the ultimate salvation;' it can also be called 'the Vow of Sincere Mind and Transferring Merit.'

 1. The 20th Vow - from the Larger Sutra

39 The [Twentieth] Vow says in the Larger Sutra [fasc. 1]:

If, when I attain Buddhahood, sentient beings in the lands of the ten quarters who, having heard my Name, concentrate their thoughts on my land, plant roots of virtue and sincerely transfer their merits towards my land with a desire to be born there, should not eventually fulfill their aspiration, may I not attain perfect Enlightenment.

 2. Fulfillment of the 20th Vow - from the Larger Sutra

40 It is also said in the same sutra [fasc. 2]:

Although they doubt these wisdoms, they still believe in retribution for evil and reward for virtue and so cultivate the roots of virtue, aspiring for birth in that land. Such beings are born in that palace.

 3. Verses on Bodhisattvas' Visit - from the Larger Sutra

41 It is also said in the same sutra [fasc. 2]:

Without a stock of good from past lives,

One cannot hear this sutra;

But those who have strictly observed the precepts

Can hear the right Dharma.

 4. The 20th Vow - from the T'ang version of the Larger Sutra

42 It is stated in the Teaching Assembly of the Tathagata of Infinite Life [fasc. 1]:

If, when I attain Buddhahood, all the sentient beings in the countless lands who, having heard my Name expounded, make use of it as their own root of good and transfer its merit towards the Land of Utmost Bliss, should not be born there, may I not attain Bodhi.

 5. Verses on Bodhisattvas' Visit - from the Han version of the Larger Sutra

43 It is stated in the Sutra on the Immeasurably Pure and Equal Enlightenment [fasc. 2]:

Those who do not have this merit

Cannot hear the name of this sutra;

Only those who have strictly observed the precepts

Have now heard the right Dharma.

Evil, arrogant, corrupt and indolent people

Cannot readily accept this teaching;

But those who met Buddhas in their past lives

Will rejoice [631a] to hear the teaching of the World-Honored One.

It is rare to obtain human life,

And difficult to encounter a Buddha in this world;

Hard it is to attain the wisdom of faith;

Once you have heard the Dharma, pursue it with diligence.

 6. Testimony from the Contemplation Sutra

44 The Contemplation Sutra states:

The Buddha said to Ananda, "Bear these words in mind. To bear these words in mind means to hold fast to the Name of the Buddha of Infinite Life."

 7. Testimony from the Contemplation Sutra

45 The Amida Sutra states:

One cannot attain birth in that land with few roots of good or a small stock of merit. If you hear someone expounding Amida Buddha, hold fast to his Name.

 8. Testimony from Shan-tao's works - (1)

46 The Master of Kuang-ming temple says[in the Commentary on the Meditative Practice]:

Although many other practices are called good acts, when compared with the Nembutsu, they cannot match it. For this reason, the efficacy of the Nembutsu is widely praised in many sutras. For example, in the Forty-eight Vows in the Larger Sutra it is clarified that one can attain birth simply by exclusive recitation of Amida's Name. Also, the Amida Sutra says, "One can attain birth by exclusively reciting Amida's Name for one to seven days." Furthermore, the testimony of the Buddhas of the ten quarters, countless as the sands of the River Ganges, has not been made in vain. In the passages on meditative and non-meditative practices in this [Contemplation] Sutra it is shown that one can attain birth simply by exclusively reciting the Name. These are a few of many examples. This completes an extensive exposition of the Nembutsu-Samadhi.

 9. Testimony from Shan-tao's works - (2)

47 He also says [in the Commentary on the Non-meditative Practice]:

Again, one should deeply and decidedly believe that in the Amida Sutra Buddhas of the ten quarters, countless as the sands of the River Ganges, give testimony to all ordinary people, encouraging them to seek birth with assurance....

Buddhas' words and acts never disagree. When Shakyamuni urges all ordinary people to dedicate themselves to the exclusive recitation and exclusive practice with the assurance of their birth in that land after death, this teaching is equally praised, recommended and testified to by all the Buddhas of the ten quarters. Why? Because they all possess the Great Compassion that arises from the same Enlightenment. One Buddha's teaching is the same as all the Buddhas' teachings; all the Buddhas' teachings are the same as one Buddha's teaching. It is just as expounded in the Amida Sutra....

[The sutra] urges all ordinary people to recite exclusively Amida's Name with singleness of heart for one to seven days, assuring them of their unfailing attainment of birth. In a passage below this, it is stated that in each quarter there are Buddhas countless as the sands of the River Ganges, who all praise Shakyamuni:

In the evil age of the five defilements, in this evil world, when evil sentient beings, evil passions, wrong-doings and disbeliefs are rampant, Shakyamuni particularly praises Amida's Name and urges sentient beings to recite it, assuring them of their unfailing attainment of birth.

This is the testimony.

Further, Buddhas of the ten quarters, fearing that sentient beings might not accept the teaching of one Buddha, Shakyamuni, extend their tongues in one accord and simultaneously, covering with them the three-thousand worlds and expounding the words of truth and sincerity:

Sentient beings, you should all accept what Shakyamuni has taught, praised and testified to. When all ordinary people, regardless of whether their evil or merit is great or small and whether they practice for a long or short time, exclusively recite Amida's Name with singleness of heart for up to [631b] a hundred years or even one to seven days, they will certainly attain birth beyond any doubt.

This shows that one Buddha's teaching is testified to by all the Buddhas. This is called 'establishing faith with regard to persons.'

 10. Testimony from Shan-tao's works - (3)

48 He also says [in the Commentary on the Non-meditative Practice]:

When I ponder on the intent of the Buddha's Vow, I find that he solely encourages right mindfulness and recitation of the Name. In enabling us to attain birth quickly, this practice cannot be compared with acts performed with mixed and distracted thoughts. What this sutra and other scriptures widely praise in various places can be summarized as urging us to recite the Name. This we should know.

 11. Testimony from Shan-tao's works - (4)

49 He also says [in the Commentary on the Non-meditative Practice]:

The passage [of the Contemplation Sutra] beginning with "The Buddha said to Ananda, 'Bear these words in mind,'" shows that Shakyamuni entrusted Amida's Name to Ananda so that it would be transmitted to distant generations. Although Shakyamuni has above expounded the benefit of both the meditative and non-meditative practices, in view of the Buddha's Primal Vow, he meant to urge sentient beings to dedicate themselves solely to recite Amida Buddha's Name.

 12. Testimony from Shan-tao's works - (5)

50 He also says [in the Hymns of the Nembutsu Liturgy]:

The Land of Utmost Bliss is the Nirvana Realm of No-action:

I fear it is hard to be born by doing various good acts in accordance with given conditions.

Hence, the Tathagata selected the essential method -

He urged us to be mindful of Amida exclusively with singleness of heart.

 13. Testimony from Shan-tao's works - (6)

51 He also says [in the Hymns of the Nembutsu Liturgy]:

As this cosmic period draws to a close, the five defilements flourish;

Sentient beings are so full of wrong views that they find it hard to have faith.

Although we are taught to dedicate ourselves wholly to the Nembutsu to take the path to the West,

Our faith is destroyed by others and so we find ourselves remaining as we were before.

We have always been like this since innumerable kalpas ago;

It is not that we realize this for the first time in this life.

Because we have not encountered the excellent, strong power,

We have been transmigrating while unable to attain emancipation.

 14. Testimony from Shan-tao's works - (7)

52 He also says [in the Hymns of the Nembutsu Liturgy]:

Although the various Dharma-gates all lead to emancipation,

None of them surpasses birth in the West through the Nembutsu.

When we recite the Nembutsu throughout life, or even ten times,

Or three or five times, the Buddha will come to welcome us.

Amida's universal Vow has the strong power,

Enabling ordinary people who recite the Name to attain birth immediately.

 15. Testimony from Shan-tao's works - (8)

53 He also says [in the Hymns on the Pratyutpanna Samadhi]:

All Tathagatas provide skillful means;

The present Sage Shakyamuni does the same.

As he expounds the Dharma in accordance with people's capacities, they all receive benefit;

Let each of them attain realization and understanding and enter the True Gate....

The Buddha's teaching has many gates, numbering eighty-four thousand,

Precisely because the capacities of beings are different.

If you are seeking the eternal abode of peace and bliss,

First choose a practice of primary importance and, through it, enter the True Gate.

 16. Testimony from Shan-tao's works - (9)

54 He also says [in the Hymns of Birth in the Pure Land quoted in Chih-sheng's Collection of Liturgical Passages from Various Sutras]:

From what I see and hear about the monks and laypeople everywhere these days, there are different understandings and practices - with the difference of exclusive and miscellaneous practices. Only if they practice the Nembutsu with singleness of mind, ten out of ten will be born. If they perform miscellaneous practices, not even one in a thousand will attain birth, because they lack sincere mind.

 17. Testimony from Yuan-chao's work

55 Master Yuan-chao's Commentary on the Amida Sutra states:

The Tathagata wishes to clarify the excellent merit of holding fast to the Name. First, he disparages other good acts as small roots of good. That is to say, all the acts of merit - for example, charity, observance of the precepts, construction of temples, making images, worshiping, chanting, meditation, repentance, and ascetic practices - are called small good acts, if they are not accompanied by true Faith but are transferred towards the Pure Land with aspiration for birth there. They are not the cause of birth. [631c] If one holds fast to the Name in accord with this sutra, one will definitely attain birth. Hence, we realize that recitation of the Name is the act of many roots of good and many merits.

Formerly I had this understanding, but people had doubts about this. Recently, I obtained a copy of the sutra engraved on a stone monument at Hsiang-yang and found that this text agreed with the hidden truth [of the Amida Sutra]. So people began to entertain a deep faith. The text reads:

Sons and daughters of good families, having heard an exposition of Amida Buddha, exclusively recite his Name with a concentrated and undistracted mind. It is through recitation of the Name that your karmic evils will be destroyed. This is the act of many virtues, many roots of good, and many merits.

 18. Testimony from Yuan-chao's work

56 It is stated in the Commentary [on the Amida Sutra] by [Chih-yuan of] Mount Ku:

Concerning 'hold fast (shuji) to the Name,' shu (fast) means to accept firmly; ji means to keep. Through the power of faith, one firmly accepts the Name in one's heart. Through the power of mindfulness, one keeps it without forgetting.

 19. Testimony from the Larger Sutra

57 The Larger Sutra [fasc. 2] states:

It is difficult to encounter and behold a Tathagata when he is in this world. Difficult of access and difficult to hear are the Buddhas' teachings and scriptures. It is also difficult to hear the excellent teachings for bodhisattvas, the Paramitas. Difficult too is it to meet a good teacher, to hear the Dharma and perform the practices. But most difficult of all difficulties is to hear this sutra, have faith in it with joy and hold fast to it. Nothing is more difficult than this. Thus have I formed my Dharma, thus have I expounded my Dharma, and thus have I taught my Dharma. You must receive it and practice it by the method prescribed.

 20. Testimony from the Nirvana Sutra - (1)

58 It is stated in the Nirvana Sutra [Chapter on Kashyapa]:

I have stated in this sutra, "The factor that makes all the sacred practices possible is the good teacher. Although the factors that make all the sacred practices possible are innumerable, if the good teacher is presented as one, it contains all the rest." I have expounded, "All evil acts are based on wrong views. Although the causes of all the evil acts are innumerable, if wrong views are presented as one, it contains all the rest." I have also stated, "The cause of the highest, perfect Bodhi is Faith. Although the causes of Bodhi are innumerable, if Faith is presented as one, it contains all the rest."

 21. Testimony from the Nirvana Sutra - (2)

59 It is also stated in the same sutra [Chapter on Kashyapa]:

Sons of good families, there are two kinds of faith: one is accepting in faith and the other is pursuing. Such people, although they accept the teaching in faith, cannot pursue it. Hence, they are described as possessing imperfect faith.

Again, there are two kinds of faith: one is the faith that arises from hearing and the other is the faith that arises from reflection. These people's faith arises from hearing and not from reflection. Hence, they are described as possessing imperfect faith.

Again, there are two kinds [of faith]: one is to believe that there is a path to Enlightenment and the other is to believe that there are people who have attained it. These people's faith only accepts that there is a path to Enlightenment but does not accept that there are people who have attained it. This is described as possessing imperfect faith.

Again, there are two kinds: one is to believe in the right teaching and the other is to believe in the wrong ones. To accept that there is the law of causality and that Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha exist is to believe in the right teaching. To reject the law of causality, to state that the Three Treasures have different natures and to believe in wrong words and [wrong teachers, such as] Purana is to believe in the wrong teachings. These people, although they believe in the Treasures of Buddha, Dharma, [632a] and Sangha, do not accept that the Three Treasures are the same in essence; although they believe in the law of causality, they do not accept that there are people who have attained the Way. This is described as possessing imperfect faith, and these people are the ones who have imperfect faith....

Sons of good families, there are four good acts that bring evil results. What are the four? The first is to recite sutras in order to show that one is superior to others. The second is to observe the precepts in order to gain profit. The third is to practice charity in order to make others one's followers. The fourth is to practice concentration and contemplation in order to reach the realm of neither thought nor non-thought. These four good acts bring evil results. Those who practice these four are described as 'those who sink and, after having sunk, emerge; and after having emerged, they sink again.' Why do they sink? Because they are desirous of the states of existence in the three worlds. Why do they emerge? Because they see the bright path. To see the bright path is to hear the teaching of precept, charity and meditation. Why do they sink again? Because their wrong views increase and arrogance is produced. For this reason, I say in two verses in the sutra:

If there are sentient beings who, desirous of various states of existence, Perform good and evil acts in order to attain these states,

They lose sight of the path to Nirvana.

They are described as emerging briefly and sinking again.

Those who practice the way in the dark ocean of birth-and-death

And attain emancipation but still have evil passions,

Are bound to receive evil results.

They are described as emerging briefly and sinking again.

For the Tathagata, there are two kinds of Nirvana: one is conditioned and the other is unconditioned. The conditioned Nirvana lacks eternity, bliss, complete freedom, and purity; the unconditioned Nirvana possesses eternity, bliss, complete freedom, and purity....

These people deeply believe that the two kinds of precepts both bring about good results. Hence, they are described as possessing imperfect precepts. Such people lack faith and precepts, and also however much teaching they may hear, it is imperfect.

What is called 'imperfect hearing'? To accept only a half of the twelve divisions of the scriptures expounded by the Tathagata and reject the other half - this is called 'imperfect hearing.' Also, even if one upholds these six divisions of scriptures, one cannot recite them and so one's exposition of the scriptures cannot benefit others; this is called 'imperfect hearing.' Further, having received the six divisions of the scriptures, one upholds, recites and expounds them for the sake of disputation, in order to defeat others in discussions, to gain profit or for secular purposes; this is called 'imperfect hearing.'

 22. Testimony from the Nirvana Sutra - (3)

60 It is also stated in the same sutra [Chapter on the Virtuous King]:

Sons of good families, the first and foremost true good teachers are bodhisattvas and Buddhas, the World-Honored Ones. For what reason? Because of their three skillful controlling powers. What are the three? The first is extremely gentle words; the second is extremely stern rebukes; and the third is both gentle words and stern rebukes. Because of these, bodhisattvas and Buddhas are true good teachers.

Again, sons of good families, [632b] the Buddhas and bodhisattvas are considered to be great physicians; hence, they are called good teachers. For what reason? Because they know illnesses and the medicines to cure them, and they prescribe the medicine in correspondence with the illnesses. It is like a good physician, who is well acquainted with the eight kinds of medical art. He first observes the symptoms. There are three types of them. What are the three? They are symptoms related to wind, fever, and water. To the patient of a wind disease, ghee is administered. To the patient of fever disease, crystallized sugar is given. To the patient of water disease, ginger infusion is prescribed. Because the physician knows well the root of the illness, he is able to administer the appropriate medicine and cure it. Hence, he is called a good physician.

Buddhas and bodhisattvas are like this. They know all the illnesses of ordinary people, which fall into three types: greed, anger and stupidity. Those who have the illness of greed are urged to contemplate a human skeleton. Those who have the illness of anger are led to contemplate compassion. Those who have the illness of stupidity are made to contemplate the twelve conditioned originations. Because of this, the Buddhas and bodhisattvas are called good teachers. Sons of good families, just as a ferryman who safely carries people across the waters is called a great ferryman, so it is with Buddhas and bodhisattvas; because they ferry sentient beings across the great ocean of birth-and-death, they are called good teachers.

 23. Testimony from the Garland Sutra - (1)

61It is stated in the Garland Sutra [Chapter on Entry into the Dharma-realm]:

When you think of your good teachers,

Think of them as your parents who gave birth to you.

They are like a nursing mother who nourished you with her milk.

They cause the elements of Bodhi to grow in you.

They are like a physician who cures your illnesses,

Like a deva raining down nectar,

Like the sun showing us the right way,

And like the moon turning its pure orb.

 24. Testimony from the Garland Sutra - (1)

62 It is also stated in the same sutra [Chapter on Entry into the Dharma-realm]:

The Tathagata, the Great Compassionate One,

Appears in this world,

And for the sake of all sentient beings,

Turns the wheel of the supreme Dharma.

For the sake of sentient beings the Tathagata

Diligently practiced the Way for innumerable kalpas;

How could all the world repay

The benevolence of the Great Master?

 25. Testimony from Shan-tao's works- (1)

63 The Master of Kuang-ming temple says [in the Hymns on the Pratyutpanna Samadhi]:

How regrettable it is that sentient beings doubt what should not be doubted!

The Pure Land is before your eyes; it should not be denied.

Do not argue whether Amida embraces you or not;

What is essential is whether or not you single-mindedly direct your thoughts [towards the Pure Land]

They say [to each other] that from now until the time they attain Buddhahood,

They will repay the Buddha's benevolence by praising him for a long kalpa.

If not blessed by the Great Power of Amida's Vow,

When and in which kalpa would we be able to escape from this Saha world?

How can you expect to reach the Treasure Land now?

It is indeed due to the power of the Great Master of the Saha world.

Without the exhortation of the Great Master, our Good Teacher,

How can you enter the Pure Land of Amida?

By attaining birth in the Pure Land, repay your indebtedness to the compassionate benevolence.

 26. Testimony from Shan-tao's works- (2)

64 He also says [in the Hymns of Birth in the Pure Land]:

It is extremely difficult to meet an age in which a Buddha appears;

Difficult it is for a person to realize the Wisdom of Faith.

To be able to hear the Dharma that is rarely met with

Is by far the most difficult of all.

To attain Faith yourself and guide others to Faith

Is the most difficult of all difficulties.

To guide all beings universally with the Great Compassion

Is truly to repay your indebtedness to the Buddha's benevolence.

 27. Testimony from Shan-tao's works- (3)

65 He also says [in the Hymns of the Nembutsu Liturgy]:

Let us go home!

Do not stay in other lands.

Following the Buddha, let us return to our original home!

Once we have returned to our original land,

All our vows and practices will be spontaneously fulfilled.

Tears of joy and sorrow stream down. As we deeply reflect on ourselves,

We realize: If Shakyamuni Buddha had not [632c] awakened us,

When would we be able to hear Amida's Name and Vow?

Although we feel the weight of the Buddha's compassionate benevolence, it is indeed difficult to repay it.

 28. Testimony from Shan-tao's works- (4)

66 He also says [in the Hymns of the Nembutsu Liturgy]:

Beings of the ten quarters have all been transmigrating in the six realms without end. They have interminably been floundering in the waves of desire and sinking in the sea of suffering over many lives. It is rare to meet with the Buddhist Way and receive a human form, but I have now received them. It is difficult to hear the Pure Land teaching, but I have now heard it. It is hard to awaken Faith, but I have now awakened it.

 Shinran's admonition

67 I truly realize that those who engage in exclusive performance with mixed minds do not attain Great Joy. Hence, the master [Shan-tao] said [in the Hymns of Birth in the Pure Land]:

These people do not feel gratitude for the Buddha's benevolence. Even when they perform practices, they are arrogant and disdainful, and their acts are always accompanied by the desire for fame and wealth. Being naturally covered by self-attachment, they do not associate with fellow-believers and good teachers. Accordingly, they like to approach various worldly affairs, thereby creating hindrances to their own and others' performance of the right practice for birth.

How sad it is that the ordinary, ignorant people who possess defilements and hindrances, from beginningless past up to the present, have had no opportunity for deliverance because they are prone to perform the Right and Auxiliary Acts in a mixed way and their minds vacillate between meditative and non-meditative practices. As I reflect upon the cycle of transmigration, I realize that it is difficult to take refuge in the Buddha's Vow-Power and enter the sea of Great Faith even in the passage of kalpas as numerous as the number of particles obtained by grinding the earth. How deplorable it is! I should deeply sorrow over this.

Generally speaking, sages of Mahayana and Hinayana and all good people hold to the auspicious Name of the Primal Vow as their own root of good. For this reason, they cannot awaken Faith, realize the Buddha's Wisdom and understand Amida's intent in establishing the cause of birth; hence, they cannot enter his Land of Recompense.

 Conversion through the three vows

68 Now, I, Gutoku Shinran, disciple of Shakyamuni, having respectfully accepted the exposition of the master of discourse [Vasubandhu] and the exhortation of the master of this school [Shan-tao], left forever the temporary gate of the thousands of practices and various good acts and departed from the teaching for the Birth beneath the Twin Shala Trees. Having converted to the True Gate of cultivating the roots of good and the roots of virtue, I whole-heartedly awakened the aspiration for Incomprehensible Birth. However, I have now finally left the provisional True Gate and turned into the sea of the Best-selected Vow. Having abandoned at once the aspiration for the Incomprehensible Birth, I am now assured of attaining the Inconceivable Birth. How significant is the Vow of accomplishing the ultimate salvation [the Twentieth Vow]! Having entered, once and for all, the sea of the Vow, I deeply realize the Buddha's benevolence. In order to repay his utmost virtue, I collect the essential passages of the True Teaching and am always mindful of the sea of inconceivable virtue. More and more do I appreciate it, and especially receive it with gratitude.

The Path of Sages vs. the Pure Land Path

 Impracticability of the Path of Sages

69 I truly realize that the various teachings of the Path of Sages were intended for the period when the Buddha was in the world and for the period of the Right Dharma, and not for the periods of the Semblance Dharma, the Decadent Dharma, and the Extinct Dharma. The time for those teachings has already passed and they do not correspond to the capacities of the people. The True Teaching of the Pure Land way, however, compassionately and equally leads to the Way the multitudes of defiled and evil beings of the period when the Buddha was in the world, the periods of the Right Dharma, the Semblance Dharma, the Decadent Dharma, and the Extinct Dharma as well.

 Criterion of the authentic teaching

70 According to the Buddha's exposition and the masters' commentaries, sutras preached by different kinds of people fall into five groups: first, the Buddha's exposition; second, his holy disciples' exposition; third, the exposition of heavenly beings or saints; fourth, the exposition of spirits; and fifth, the exposition of apparitional beings. Of the five, the last four kinds of exposition cannot be relied upon. The three [Pure Land] sutras are the Great Sage's own exposition. [633a]

 Fourfold selection in determining what should be relied on

71 The Commentary on the Perfection of Great Wisdom Sutra explains the four reliances as follows:

When Shakyamuni was about to enter Nirvana, he said to the monks, "From today on, rely on the Dharma, not on the people who expound it. Rely on the meaning, not on the words. Rely on wisdom, not on discriminative mind. Rely on the sutras that fully disclose the Buddha's true intent, not on those that do not.

"Concerning reliance on the Dharma, the Dharma refers to the twelve divisions of scriptures. Follow them, not the people who expound them.

"Concerning reliance on the meaning, the meaning is beyond discussion of whether one likes it or not, whether it produces karmic evil or merit, or whether it is true or false. Words have meaning, but the meaning is not the words. To give an illustration: when a man shows me where the moon is by pointing to it with his finger, I only look at the finger and not the moon. The man would say, 'I am showing you where the moon is by pointing to it with my finger. Why do you only look at the finger and not the moon?' Similarly, words are the finger pointing to the meaning; they are not the meaning itself. Hence, I say that you should not rely on the words.

"Concerning reliance on wisdom, wisdom weighs and distinguishes good and evil; the discriminative mind always seeks pleasure and does not reach the right path to Enlightenment. Hence, I say that you should not rely on the discriminative mind.

"Concerning reliance on the sutras that fully disclose the Buddha's true intent, of all the sages, the Buddha is foremost; of all the scriptures, the Buddha Dharma is foremost; of all people, monks are foremost."

The Buddha regarded the sentient beings of an age in which there is no Buddha in the world as possessed of heavy karmic evil. They are the ones who have not cultivated the roots of good for seeing a Buddha.

 Admonition to follow the above instruction

72 Therefore, monks and laypeople of the latter age should discern the four reliances in practicing the Dharma.

 Practicability of the Buddhist teaching in the three Dharma periods

73 Now, based on the true intent of the Buddha's teaching and the expositions made and transmitted by the masters of the past, I will clarify that the Path of Sages is provisional and the Pure Land Path is true, and caution people against non-Buddhist teachings which are perverted, false, and wrong. I will also determine the year of the Tathagata Shakyamuni's passing into Nirvana and make clear distinctions between the ages of the Right Dharma, the Semblance Dharma, and the Decadent Dharma.

Testimony from Tao-ch'o work - (1)

74 In connection with this, Master Tao-ch'o of Hsuan-chung temple says [in the Collection of Passages Concerning Birth in the Land of Peace and Bliss, fasc. 2]:

Those who practice the Way continuously and without cessation reach the Stage of Non-retrogression for the first time after ten thousand kalpas. Ordinary people of today are called 'those of faith as light as feathers.' They are also called '[bodhisattvas in] name only,' 'those not definitely established,' and 'ordinary beings outside the ranks.' They have not yet departed from the burning house of samsara.

In the Bodhisattva-Ornament Sutra, the stages of practice leading to Enlightenment are distinguished. Since [the course of stage-by-stage progression] is naturally set, this course is called the Path of Difficult Practice.

Testimony from Tao-ch'o work - (2)

75 He also says in the same work[fasc. 1]:

I will disclose the reason why the Pure Land teaching has arisen and urge people to follow this teaching by relating it to the times and the people. If the people, the teaching, and the times do not agree with each other, it is difficult to practice and enter upon the Way. The Sutra on Mindfulness of the Right Dharma states:

When practicers single-heartedly seek the Way,

They should always observe the times and the method of practice;

If the times are not opportune, the method of practice is not applicable.

This is called 'loss,' not 'gain.'

The reason is that it is just as one cannot make fire by rubbing wet wood, for the time is not opportune. It is also like seeking water by breaking dry wood and failing to obtain water. In this case, wisdom is lacking.

It is stated in the "Moon-Matrix" section of the Great Assembly Sutra: [633b]

Change of Buddhism during the five 500-year periods after the Buddha's passing

During the first five hundred years after the Buddha's passing into Nirvana, my disciples will be steadfast in learning wisdom. During the second five hundred years, they will be steadfast in learning meditation. During the third five hundred years, they will be steadfast in learning much teaching and chanting sutras. During the fourth five hundred years, they will be steadfast in constructing pagodas and temples, and performing meritorious acts and repentance. During the fifth five hundred years, the pure Dharma will be hidden and there will be much conflict and debate; but a little good Dharma will be still left, which they will practice steadfastly.

As I reflect on the sentient beings of the present, I find that we are in the fourth five-hundred-year period after the Buddha's passing and so this is the age in which we should repent for the evil done in the past, perform meritorious acts, and recite the Buddha's Name. When we recite the Name of Amida Buddha even once, our karmic evil that would cause us to transmigrate in the birth-and-death for eighty kotis of kalpas is eliminated. Such is the merit of one recitation of the Name. Those who constantly practice recitation are the ones who always repent themselves.

Testimony from Tao-ch'o work - (3)

76 He also says in the same work [fasc.2]:

Three Dharma-ages

I will distinguish the duration of the sutras in the world. Shakyamuni Buddha's lifetime teachings lasted for five hundred years in the age of the Right Dharma and for a thousand years in the age of the Semblance Dharma. In the age of the Decadent Dharma, which will last for ten thousand years, the number of the sentient beings will decrease and the sutras will all disappear. The Tathagata [Shakyamuni], out of pity for the sentient beings who suffer from burning pains, had this sutra [the Larger Sutra], in particular, survive and remain in the world for a hundred more years.

Testimony from Tao-ch'o work - (4)

77 He also says in the same work [fasc.1]:

The Great Assembly Sutra states:

During the age of the Decadent Dharma, billions of sentient beings will practice the Way, but not even one will attain it.

The present age is that of the Decadent Dharma and the world is an evil one with the five defilements. Only the Pure Land gate is open for us to pass through.

Warning that this is the last Dharma-age

78 Now, the multitudes of this evil and defiled world, ignorant of the distinctive features of the age of the Decadent Dharma, criticize the manners of monks and nuns. People of the present, both monks and lay, should reflect on their own capacities.

When did the age of the Decadent Dharma begin?

79 Let us consider the teachings of the three ages. When we examine the time of the Tathagata's complete Nirvana, we find that it falls on the fifty-first year (the year water/monkey) of the reign of King Mu, the fifth emperor of the Chou dynasty. From that year of water/monkey to the first year of Gennin (the year wood/monkey) in this country it is 2,183 years [to be corrected to 2,173 years]. If we calculate based on the Auspicious Kalpa Sutra, the Benevolent King Sutra, and the Nirvana Sutra, we find that 683 years [to be corrected to 673 years] have already passed since the age of the Decadent Dharma began.

Quotation from the Lamp for the Age of the Decadent Dharma

80 The Lamp for the Age of the Decadent Dharma (by Saicho) reads as follows:

The one who guides beings based on Oneness is the Dharma-King; the one who reigns over the four seas with virtue is the Benevolent King. The Benevolent King and the Dharma-King work together to enlighten beings and spread the teaching by harmonizing the supramundane truth with the mundane truth. Consequently, the profound scriptures fill the whole country, and the beneficent teaching reaches everywhere under heaven.

The foolish monks all follow heaven's mandate and respectfully submit to strict punishment, while they are never at ease.

With regard to the Dharma, there are three ages, and people are divided into three levels. The teaching for guiding us and the precepts change according to the times, and words of praise or condemnation are applied to people of different ages. In the three ages, practice of the Dharma thrives and declines in various ways, and people of the five five-hundred-year periods attain wisdom and enlightenment differently. How can people [633c] be saved only by one path? How can they be disciplined only by one guiding principle? For this reason, I will clarify the distinctive features of the ages of the Right Dharma, the Semblance Dharma, and the Decadent Dharma, and attempt to disclose the matters concerning observance and violation of the precepts in the sangha. There are three sections: first, ascertaining the theory of the ages of the Right, Semblance, and Decadent Dharma; second, clarification of the matters concerning observance and violation of the precepts in the sangha; and third, scriptural evidence concerning these matters.

First, ascertaining the theory of the ages of the Right, Semblance, and Decadent Dharma: There are various different theories, one of which will be presented. Kuei-chi, a Mahayana master, cites the Auspicious Kalpa Sutra [actually, a passage adopted from the Sutra on Maitreya's Ascent to the Tusita Heaven], saying:

After the Buddha's complete Nirvana, the Right Dharma will last for five hundred years, and the Semblance Dharma for a thousand years. After this period of 1,500 years, Shakyamuni's Dharma will perish.

The age of the Decadent Dharma is not mentioned here. According to other explanations, [the age of the Right Dharma lasts one thousand years. But,] since nuns do not observe the eight rules of respectful attitude and become indolent, the age of the [Right] Dharma does not extend further [than five hundred years]. Hence, I do not adopt this theory.

The Nirvana Sutra says:

In the age of the Decadent Dharma, 120,000 great bodhisattvas uphold the Dharma and keep it from perishing.

Since this statement concerns bodhisattvas of higher ranks, it does not suit our purposes.

Question: Then what are the main happenings during the 1,500 year period?

Answer: It is stated in the Mahamaya Sutra:

During the first five hundred years after the Buddha's passing into Nirvana, the seven holy sages, such as Mahakashyapa, will successively uphold the Right Dharma and keep it from perishing. The Right Dharma will perish after five hundred years.

During the following century, the ninety-five kinds of non-Buddhist teaching will compete each other to arise. Then Ashvaghosa will appear and subdue all the non-Buddhist teachings.

During the seventh century, Nagarjuna will appear in the world and tear up the banners of wrong views.

During the eighth century, monks will become self-indulgent and unruly in their behavior, and so only one or two will attain the fruit of the Way.

During the ninth century, male and female servants will be made into monks and nuns.

During the tenth century, when they hear the teaching of the contemplation of impurity, they will become angry and show no sign of interest.

During the eleventh century, monks and nuns will take wives and husbands, and thus break and abuse the precepts.

During the twelfth century, monks and nuns will have their children.

During the thirteenth century, the color of the monks' robe will be changed to white.

During the fourteenth century, the four kinds of disciples will be like hunters, and will sell things belonging to the Three Treasures.

During the fifteenth century, two monks in the land of Kaushambi will engage in dispute and finally kill each other. As a result, the Buddha's teachings will be stored away in the dragons' palace.

This passage is also found in the Nirvana Sutra, fasc. 18, and Benevolent King Sutra. According to these sutras, after fifteen centuries, there will be no precepts, meditation, or wisdom. Therefore, the Great Assembly Sutra, fasc. 51, states:

During the first five hundred years after my passing into Nirvana, monks and others will be steadfast in attaining emancipation in accord with the Right Dharma. (The first attainment of the fruit of sagehood is described as 'emancipation.') During the next five hundred years, they will be steadfast in practicing meditation. During the next five hundred years, they will be steadfast in hearing much teaching. During the next five hundred years, they will be steadfast in constructing temples. During the last five hundred years, they will be steadfast in engaging in disputes and so the pure Dharma will be hidden away....

This passage means that during the first three five-hundred-year periods, the three learnings of precepts, meditation, and wisdom will be steadfastly upheld in due order. These three periods correspond to the two ages of the Right Dharma lasting five hundred years and the Semblance Dharma lasting a thousand years. [634a] The period after that of constructing temples is the age of the Decadent Dharma. This is why K'ui-chi says in the Commentary on the Diamond Sutra:

The age of the Right Dharma lasts five hundred years and that of the Semblance Dharma lasts a thousand years. After the period of 1,500 years, the Right Dharma will perish.

For this reason, we know that the age following this period is that of the Decadent Dharma.

Question: If that is so, to which age does the present period belong?

Answer: There are many theories concerning the years that have passed since the Buddha's Nirvana. I will present two theories for now. First, Master Fa-sheng and others, based on the Record of Miraculous Events in the Chou Dynasty, say:

The Buddha entered Nirvana in the fifty-first year [to be corrected to 'fifty-third year,' 949 B.C.] (water/monkey) of the reign of Mu Wang-man, the fifth lord of the Chou dynasty.

According to this theory, from that year of water/monkey to the present-day, twentieth year of Enryaku (metal/snake) [801 A.D.], it is 1,750.

Second, Fei Ch'ang-fang and others, based on the Spring and Autumn Annals of the state of Lu, say:

The Buddha entered Nirvana in the fourth year (water/rat) [609 B.C.] of the reign of K'uang Wang-pan, the twenty-first lord of the Chou dynasty.

According to this theory, from that year of water/rat to the present-day, twentieth year of Enryaku (metal/snake) [801 A.D.], it is 1,410. Thus, the present period belongs to the end of the age of the Semblance Dharma. Monks' behavior in this period is already the same as in the age of the Decadent Dharma.

In the age of the Decadent Dharma, only the words and teachings of the Buddha remain, and neither practice nor enlightenment is possible. If there were precepts, there would be violation of the precepts. Since there are no longer precepts, what precept can one break to constitute violation of the precepts? Since no violation of the precepts is possible, how could there be observance of the precepts? Therefore, the Great Assembly Sutra says:

After the Buddha's Nirvana, Buddhists without precepts will fill the land.

Question: In the sutras and the vinaya texts, those who have broken the precepts are refused permission to enter the sangha. Even those who have broken the precepts are thus treated; how much more so are those without precepts? If I am to repeat the remark about the age of the Decadent Dharma, there are no precepts in this age. How could one feel the pain without a wound?

Answer: Your reasoning is wrong. The monks' behavior during the ages of the Right, Semblance, and Decadent Dharma is extensively described in many sutras. Who is there, whether monk or lay, inside the sangha or outside, who has not read about this? Why should they be too greedily attached to a wrong way of life to conceal the Right Dharma that is the support of the country? In the age of the Decadent Dharma of which we are speaking, there are only monks in name. However, we regard these nominal monks as true treasures of the world, for there are no other fields of merits. If, in the age of the Decadent Dharma, there were some who observe the precepts, they would appear very strange like a tiger in the marketplace. Who would believe such a thing?

Question: Monks' behavior in the ages of the Right, Semblance, and Decadent Dharma is described in various sutras. Is it stated in the sacred scriptures that, in the age of the Decadent Dharma, nominal monks should be regarded as true treasures of the world?

Answer: It is stated in the Great Assembly Sutra, fasc. 9:

It is just as genuine gold is regarded as the priceless treasure. If there were no genuine gold, silver would be regarded as the priceless treasure. If silver were not available, brass, the spurious treasure, would be regarded as priceless. If there were no spurious treasure, copper or nickel, iron, pewter, or lead would be regarded as priceless. All of these are treasures in the world, but the Buddha Dharma is priceless. If there is no treasure of Buddha, the pratyekabuddha is supreme. If there is no pratyekabuddha, the arhat is supreme. If there is no arhat, other sages are regarded as supreme. [634b] If there are no other sages, ordinary people who have attained meditative states are regarded as supreme. If there are no such ordinary people, those who strictly observe the precepts are regarded as supreme. If there are none who strictly observe the precepts, monks who have broken the precepts are regarded as supreme. If there are no such monks, the monks in name only, who have shaved their heads and wear a monk's robe, are regarded as the supreme treasure. Compared with the ninety-five wrong paths, they are by far the supreme and are worthy of the world's offerings. They are the foremost field of merits for sentient beings. For what reason? Because they show people that they are to be feared and respected. If one protects, supports, and respects such monks, one will before long attain the stage of insight [into the non-arising of all dharmas].

In the above passage, eight kinds of priceless treasure are presented, namely, the Tathagata, pratyekabuddha, shravaka, those who have attained the first three fruits of sagehood, ordinary beings who have attained meditative states, monks who observe the precepts, those who have broken the precepts, and those in name only who have no precepts to observe. These are the priceless treasures of the ages of the Right, Semblance, and Decadent Dharma. The first four are the treasures of the age of the Right Dharma, the next three are the treasures of the age of the Semblance Dharma, and the last is the treasure of the age of the Decadent Dharma. From this we clearly know that the monks who have broken the precepts and those who have no precepts are equally true treasures.

Question: When I humbly read the above passages, I see that both monks who have broken the precepts and those who are in name only are all true treasures. For what reason is it stated in the Nirvana Sutra and the Great Assembly Sutra as follows?

If the king and the ministers make offerings to the monks who have broken the precepts, the three calamities will occur in the country and they will eventually fall into hell. Making offerings to the monks who have broken the precepts brings about such results. How much more so if they make offerings to the monks who have no precepts?

It follows then that the Tathagata at times censures monks who have broken the precepts and at other times praises them. Would this not be the error of the one Sage making two contradictory judgements?

Answer: Your reasoning is not correct. The Nirvana Sutra and others proscribe violation of the precepts in the age of the Right Dharma. This is not meant for the monks of the ages of the Semblance and Decadent Dharma. Although the same terms are used, their implications differ according to the times. The Great Sage proscribes or permits the same act according to the age. This is his intent. Therefore, he does not commit the fault of making two different judgements on one matter.

Question: How do you know that the Nirvana Sutra and others proscribe violation of the precepts during the age of the Right Dharma and they do not address monks of the ages of the Semblance and Decadent Dharma?

Answer: The exposition of the eightfold true treasure quoted above from the Great Assembly Sutra is the testimony. Depending on the age, these eight true treasures are all priceless. Since the monks who break the precepts in the age of the Right Dharma corrupt the monks who observe the precepts, the Buddha strictly prohibits this and does not allow such monks to enter the sangha. Accordingly, the Nirvana Sutra, fasc. 3, says:

The Tathagata has now entrusted the supreme Right Dharma to the kings, ministers, councilors, monks, and nuns.... If there are some who break the precepts and abuse the Right Dharma, the kings, ministers and the four groups of Buddhists should correct them by taking disciplinary actions against them. Such kings, ministers, and others will gain immeasurable merit.... They are my disciples, true shravakas. The merit they gain will be immeasurable....

Such words of prohibition are found in many places. They are meant for the age of the Right Dharma, not for the ages of the Semblance and Decadent Dharma. The reason for this is that, in the latter part of the age of the Semblance Dharma and in the age of the Decadent Dharma, the Right Dharma is not practiced, and so there is no Dharma [634c] that can be abused. What act is called abuse of the Dharma? There are no precepts to be broken, and so who is called one who has broken the precepts? Further, there is no practice that the great king safeguards. How would the three calamities occur and how would the practice of precepts and wisdom be lost? Again, in the ages of the Semblance and Decadent Dharma, there is no one who realizes enlightenment, and so how could the Buddha teach that the two kinds of sages be consulted with and protected? Hence, we know that the above descriptions all apply to the age of the Right Dharma when the precepts are observed and violation of them is possible.

Next, during the first five hundred years in the 1,000-year period of the Semblance Dharma, observance of the precepts dwindles away and the breaking of the precepts gradually increases. Although there are the precepts and practice of the Way, no enlightenment is possible. Hence, it is stated in the Nirvana Sutra, fasc. 7:

Kashyapa Bodhisattva said to the Buddha, "World-Honored One, according to the Buddha's exposition, there are four kinds of devils. How can we distinguish devils' teachings from the Buddha's? Among many sentient beings, some follow the devils' way and others follow the Buddha's. How can they know which way they are following?"

The Buddha said to Kashyapa, "Seven hundred years after my Nirvana, the devil Papiyas will gradually gain strength and make many attempts to destroy my Right Dharma. Suppose there is a hunter wearing a monk's robe; the devil Papiyas is like this. He will appear in the form of a monk, nun, layman, or laywoman in much the same way.... [He will say,] 'Monks are allowed to keep male and female servants, cows, sheep, elephants, horses, and such daily necessities as copper and iron kettles and cauldrons, copper bowls of various sizes, and to engage in the cultivation of fields, planting seeds, buying and selling, and trade, and also to store grains and rice. The Buddha, out of great compassion, takes pity on sentient beings and so permits them to engage in such activities and keep such things.' These remarks in sutras and vinaya are all devils' expositions."

It is already stated, "Seven hundred years after my Nirvana, the devil Papiyas will gradually gain strength." Hence, we know that at that time monks will at last desire and keep the eight kinds of impure possessions. It is the devils' work to make such false remarks. These sutras explain in detail the monks' behavior with clear reference to the time, so they should not be doubted. I have quoted only one passage, leaving the rest to your imagination.

Next, in the latter half of the age of the Semblance Dharma, observance of the precepts will decline and violation of the precepts will increase enormously. Therefore, it is stated in the Nirvana Sutra, fasc. 6, ....

It is stated in the Sutra on the Ten Wheels:

Suppose there is someone who renounces the world according to the Buddhist rules and yet commits evil. Although he is not a mendicant, he calls himself one, and although he does not perform pure practices, he claims that he performs them. Such a monk opens the hidden storehouse of all good and merit for all devas, dragons, and yaksas, and then becomes a good teacher of sentient beings. Though he does not know contentment with little desire, he shaves his head and beard and wears a monk's robe. By so doing, he increases the roots of good for the sake of sentient beings and shows the good path to all devas and humans... Although a monk who breaks the precepts is said to be a dead man, the power of observance of the precepts that still remains is like the cow's bezoar. Even though the cow dies, people make special efforts to obtain bezoar. [635a] It is also like musk which is useful after the musk deer has died.

It is already stated [in the Nirvana Sutra], "In the forest of kalaka trees, there is a persimmon tree." This illustrates the fact that, when the Semblance Dharma declines, only one or two monks who observe the precepts exist in the defiled world characterized by the breaking of the precepts. It is also stated, "Although a monk who breaks the precepts is like a dead man, he is like the usefulness of the musk after the musk deer has died. He becomes a good teacher of sentient beings." Hence, we clearly know that in this period the breaking of the precepts is finally permitted and the monk who breaks them is regarded as the fields of merits for the world. This is the same as in the passage quoted earlier from the Great Assembly Sutra.

Next, after the end of the age of the Semblance Dharma, there are no precepts whatsoever. Recognizing the change of the times, the Buddha, in order to save the people of the age of the Decadent Dharma, praises monks in name only to make them the fields of merits in the world. The Great Assembly Sutra, fasc. 52, says:

If, in the age of the Decadent Dharma, there is a monk in name only who, in accord with my teaching, shaves his hair and beard and wears a monk's robe and if there are donors who make offerings to him, such donors will gain immeasurable merits.

It is also stated in the Sutra on the Wise and the Foolish:

In the last age in the future when the Dharma is about to perish, monks will take wives and have their children. Yet you should pay homage to a group of four or more such monks just as you would to Shariputra, Mahamaudgalyayana, and others.

It is also said in the same sutra:

If one beats and scolds monks who have broken the precepts, without knowing that they wear a monk's robes, the offense is the same as causing blood to flow from the bodies of ten thousand kotis of Buddhas. If there are sentient beings who shave their hair and beard and wear the monk's robe for the cause of the Buddha Dharma, even though they may not observe the precepts, they all already bear the seal of Nirvana....

The Great Compassion Sutra says,

The Buddha said to Ananda, "In the future, when the Dharma is about to perish, monks and nuns who have renounced the world in accord with my teaching will lead their children by the hand and wander together from one public house to another. They will commit impure acts while staying with my teaching. Despite their connections with wine, they will be my disciples in this Auspicious Kalpa when a thousand Buddhas appear in the world. Afterwards, Maitreya will become my successor, followed by others who will appear in succession until the last Tathagata Rocana. You should know, Ananda, while following my teaching, people will become mendicants in name only and practice wrong acts and yet declare themselves mendicants. In appearance they resemble mendicants, and always wear the monk's robe. In the Auspicious Kalpa, when the Tathagatas from Maitreya down to Rocana appear, such mendicants will, under these Buddhas, successively enter complete Nirvana without residue. None will be left behind. For what reason? Because among all such mendicants, some call the Buddha's name even once and awaken faith even once; their acts of merit have not been done in vain. This I know because I recognize everything in the Dharma-realm with the Buddha-wisdom...."

These sutras, referring to the specific age, regard monks in name only in the future age of the Decadent Dharma as venerable masters of the world. If you seek to regulate the behavior of the monks in name only in the age of the Decadent Dharma with the rules of discipline meant for the age of the Right Dharma, [635b] the teaching will run counter to the people's capacity, and people and the Dharma will not fit each other. Accordingly, it is said in a Vinaya text [the Four-Part Vinaya]:

To enforce prohibition on that which should not be prohibited will mean abolishing the Vinaya rules established with the Buddha's three supernatural faculties. Such an act is an offense.

Having quoted above from the sutras, I have related different Dharma-ages to the monks' behavior.

Lastly, in comparison with the teachings [in the earlier ages], the Right Dharma is destroyed in the age of the Decadent Dharma as a matter of natural development. The three modes of acts of sentient beings cannot be regulated, and their four modes of deportment are against the Buddha's rules, as described in the Sutra Clearing the Doubts concerning the Semblance Dharma.... It is also stated in the Sutra on the Buddha's Last Teaching.... Again, it is stated in the Dharma-Practice Sutra.... Also it is stated in the Mrgaramatr Sutra.... And it is stated in the Benevolent King Sutra....